Programmable via structure for three dimensional integration technology

ABSTRACT

A programmable link structure for use in three dimensional integration (3DI) semiconductor devices includes a via filled at least in part with a phase change material (PCM) and a heating device proximate the PCM. The heating device is configured to switch the conductivity of a transformable portion of the PCM between a lower resistance crystalline state and a higher resistance amorphous state. Thereby, the via defines a programmable link between an input connection located at one end thereof and an output connection located at another end thereof.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST

This invention was made with U.S. Government support under GovernmentContract No.: N66001-04-C-8032, awarded by the Defense Advance ResearchProjects Agency (DARPA). The U.S. Government has certain rights in thisinvention.

BACKGROUND

The present invention relates generally to field programmable circuitsas related to three-dimensional integration and, more particularly, to aprogrammable via structure suitable for use in three-dimensionalintegration technology.

Traditionally, application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) deviceshave been used in the integrated circuit (IC) industry to reduce cost,enhance performance or meet space constraints. The generic class of ASICdevices falls under a variety of sub classes such as custom ASICs,standard cell ASICs, Gate Array, and Field Programmable Gate Array(FPGA), wherein the degree of user allowed customization varies.

In recent years, there has been a move away from custom, semi-custom andGate Array ICs toward field programmable components whose function isdetermined not when the integrated circuit is fabricated, but by an enduser “in the field” prior to use. Off the shelf FPGA products greatlysimplify the design cycle and are fully customized by the user. Theseproducts offer user-friendly software to fit custom logic into thedevice through programmability, and the capability to tweak and optimizedesigns to improve silicon performance. While such programmability isexpensive in terms of silicon real estate, it reduces design cycle time,time to solution (TTS) and upfront non-recurring engineering (NRE) coststo the designer.

Reconfigurable circuits, such as FPGAs, are also anticipated to play asignificant role in the new Three Dimensional Integration (3DI)technology currently under development. In planar circuit technologies(i.e., the individual circuit elements are formed on a single, planarsubstrate), an FPGA 100 (as shown in FIG. 1) is characterized by a setof simple, configurable logic blocks 102 arranged in an array withinterspersed switches 104 that can rearrange the interconnectionsbetween the logic blocks 102.

In contrast, 3DI structures (such as shown in FIG. 2) consist ofmultiple semiconductor layers (DL1, DL2, etc.) that are interconnectedin a vertical direction. In a multilayer logic network, thisthree-dimensionality may be exploited to increase density withoutreducing feature size, and reduce the line of flight interconnect pathbetween logic elements. Optimal communication efficiency can thus beachieved in this context by introducing reconfigurable interconnects.Reconfigurable interconnects also offer the possibility for multi-usechips, thereby enabling compatibility with different communicationprotocols. Moreover, technologically disparate multilayer structures canform unique, single-chip combinations such as (logic+memory),(logic+optical communications) and (logic+sensors), for example. Inthese types of multicomponent/multilayer systems, reconfigurableconnections are therefore needed to provide the controllable logicfunctionality, memory element repair and data encryption, etc.

Existing field-programmable logic and memory repair technology utilizesseveral methods to physically make/break the connections between logicblocks; unfortunately, none of these existing methods provides a fullyadequate solution to the requirements of a 3DI application. Forinstance, a laser-fusible link is an early approach, but has nowreplaced by electrical techniques entirely internal to the chip.Electromigration fuses, such as those in IBM's eFUSE technology forrerouting chip logic, are also currently in use. However, anelectromigration fuse takes up a large circuit area and requires a highcurrent to blow the fuse. Moreover, the process is “one-shot,” i.e.,once the fuse is blown, it cannot thereafter be returned to a conductingstate. Further, the distribution of eFuse characteristics is relativelybroad, requiring that the state of each fuse be sensed by adiscriminating circuit with the digital result stored in a latch.

Another existing approach for FPGA is the use of flash bits to control apass transistor for each interconnection. A flash bit takes up space inthe logic level, is formed by a process that is incompatible withstandard CMOS processing, and requires a special high voltage to chargethe gate oxide. As compared to a laser-blown fuse or an eFuse, the flashapproach is considered limited multi-shot technique (e.g., about 20,000reversals).

An anti-fuse approach used for some DRAM repair typically involves avery thin dielectric material such as silicon dioxide, or the sandwichcombination silicon oxide-nitride-oxide (ONO), between two conductors.The anti-fuse is programmed by applying a relatively high voltagethrough the conducting terminals, thus causing dielectric breakdown inthe dielectric. As a result, the resistance of the anti-fuse permanentlychanges from high to low. Accordingly, this represents another exampleof a one-shot technique, one that requires a high voltage.

The controllable link technologies described above do not have optimalproperties for programmable logic applications in 3DI (or even forplanar applications for that matter). In particular, a dependency on theuse of high voltages (whether for gate charging in flash bitapplications or for dielectric antifuses) is undesirable. In the case offlash bits, their presence in the logic level real estate may causeprocess incompatibilities, as described above. Electromigration fusesdriven by relatively high current are large-area, require undesirablyhigh power, and require an additional discriminator and latch circuitry.Furthermore, devices incorporating static RAM latches are subject tosoft error arising from alpha particles or cosmic rays, which in a 3DIapplication may also have the effect of randomly altering the logicconfiguration. With the exception of flash bit technology (which haslimited multi-shot capability), conventional fuse-based approaches areone-shot.

Accordingly, it would therefore be desirable to be able to configure aprogrammable link for a 3DI application that does not require highcurrent or voltage to program, that is compatible with standard CMOSprocessing at the device level, that avoids the need for an SRAM latchto minimize space and avoid soft errors, and that is reprogrammable fora significant number of multiple instances (i.e., not single-shot).

SUMMARY

The foregoing discussed drawbacks and deficiencies of the prior art areovercome or alleviated by a programmable link structure for use in threedimensional integration (3DI) semiconductor devices. In an exemplaryembodiment, the structure includes a via filled at least in part with aphase change material (PCM) and a heating device proximate the PCM. Theheating device is configured to switch the conductivity of atransformable portion of the PCM between a lower resistance crystallinestate and a higher resistance amorphous state. Thereby, the via definesa programmable link between an input connection located at one endthereof and an output connection located at another end thereof.

In another embodiment, a method for programming a programmable linkstructure of a three dimensional integration (3DI) semiconductor devicesincludes passing a current through a heating device, the heating deviceproximate a via filled at least in part with a phase change material(PCM), the via thereby defining a programmable link between an inputconnection located at one end thereof and an output connection locatedat another end thereof. The heating device is configured to switch theconductivity of a transformable portion of said PCM between a lowerresistance crystalline state and a higher resistance amorphous state.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Referring to the exemplary drawings wherein like elements are numberedalike in the several Figures:

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an FPGA used in planar circuittechnologies;

FIG. 2 is a cross sectional view of an exemplary three dimensionalintegrated circuit;

FIG. 3 is a graph illustrating exemplary thermal cycling operations of aphase change material used in a programmable via, in accordance with anembodiment of the invention;

FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating the resistivity of the various states ofGe₂Sb₂Te₅, as a function of nitrogen doping;

FIGS. 5(a) and 5(b) are a cross sectional view and a top view,respectively, of a first embodiment of a programmable via structure forsemiconductor devices;

FIG. 6 is a cross sectional view of a second embodiment of aprogrammable via structure for semiconductor devices;

FIGS. 7(a) and 7(b) are cross sectional views of a third embodiment of aprogrammable via structure for semiconductor devices;

FIG. 8 is a cross sectional view of a fourth embodiment of aprogrammable via structure for semiconductor devices;

FIGS. 9(a) and 9(b) are a cross sectional view and a top view,respectively, of a fifth embodiment of a programmable via structure forsemiconductor devices;

FIG. 10 is a cross sectional view of a sixth embodiment of aprogrammable via structure for semiconductor devices;

FIG. 11 is an exemplary logic structure using programmable vias,illustrating consideration of “on” and “off” resistance parameters;

FIG. 12 is a plot of melt front location versus time in the quench andanneal steps of a PCM;

FIG. 13 is a graph illustrating amorphization envelopes for variouscrystallization velocities;

FIG. 14 illustrates a snapshot from a simulation with a solid slab ofheating material in the separating plane between two PCM+oxidecomposites and;

FIG. 15 illustrates a snapshot at 60 ns into the melting phase ofanother model with a ring of heating material and an oxide shellsurrounding a continuous PCM volume.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Disclosed herein is a programmable via structure suitable for use in 3DItechnology. Briefly stated, a phase change material (PCM) isincorporated into a programmable via structure wherein the conductivityof the via is altered by a thermal SET or RESET process that changes thecrystal properties of the PCM, and therefore the conductivity of thesame. Thus configured, the PCM-based programmable vias provide suchdesirable advantages as, for example: spatial compactness, theelimination of a need for latches, multiple-shot reprogrammability,immunity from soft errors, and the elimination of the need for highvoltage/current/power switching capability. Such advantages in turnprovide improved function and lower costs in 3D applications. As will befurther appreciated, the advantages of PCM programmable vias are notnecessarily limited to 3DI structures, but rather the PCM programmablelinks may also be used in planar silicon environments so as to providean alternative to FPGA.

As described in further detail, a PCM programmable via is formed withinthe metal layers of a semiconductor device, and may have a standard viacross section for the particular node (e.g., about 0.2 μm×0.2 μm). ThePCM via material may be switched between resistive and conductive statesby using an external heating element operated in a programmed heatcycle. The power requirement for switching of the PCM from anon-conductive, amorphous state to a conductive, crystalline state (andvice versa) is within available line voltage supplies. In addition,because the “on” and “off” impedances are suitable for directinterfacing with logic inputs, no latch devices are required.Furthermore, the PCM via structure may be reprogrammed a very largenumber of times (e.g., PCM memory elements test up to on the order ofabout 10¹¹ cycles).

In one embodiment, the phase change material (PCM) is a ternary alloy ofgermanium (Ge), antimony (Sb) and tellurium (Te) (hereinafter referredto as “GST”), with an exemplary composition of Ge₂Sb₂Te₅; however, othercompositions such as GeSb₄, (including substitution/addition of otherelements) are also possible for the PCM. Table I below illustrates acomparison of resistivity, specific heat and thermal conductivity ofvarious insulative, conductive and phase change materials associatedwith via level materials in a semiconductor device: TABLE I Resistivity,Specific Heat and Thermal Conductivity of Key Materials Material ρ(Ω ·cm) C_(p)(J/(K · cm³) K(J/(K · cm · sec)) SiO₂ 3 0.013 TaSiN 4 × 10⁻⁴0.02 Ge₂Sb₂Te₅ 0.04 * 1.3 0.005 (crystalline) Ge₂Sb₂Te₅  8 × 10³ * 1.30.0017 (amorphous) GeSb₄ (crystalline) 5 × 10⁻⁴ GeSb₄ (amorphous) 1.0  * 12% N-doping

At room temperature (and up to moderately elevated temperatures), thePCM material is stable in two phases: a crystalline phase which is amoderately good conductor of electricity, and an amorphous phase whichis insulating as shown in Table I. Thus, in the crystalline phase, thestate of a PCM link is “on,” while in the amorphous phase the state is“off.” The phases are switched from one to another by one of two thermalcycling operations as illustrated in FIG. 3. More specifically, thethermal cycling includes a “RESET” pulse for converting the PCM fromcrystalline to amorphous form, and a “SET” pulse for converting the PCMfrom amorphous to crystalline form. During the RESET pulse, thetemperature of the PCM is raised above its melting temperature (T_(m)),followed by a rapid quench over a short time t₁. As a result of therapid quench, the disordered arrangement of atoms of the PCM due to themelt is retained. Thus, the PCM is left in an amorphous, high resistivestate after the RESET pulse. During the SET pulse, the PCM is annealedat a lower temperature with respect to the melting temperature, and fora longer time t₂ with respect to t₁. This process enables the amorphousform to crystallize into a lower resistive state.

As also indicated above, the ternary GST alloy is nitrogen doped inorder to raise the crystallization temperature thereof, so that thematerial remains bistable at an operating temperature of approximately85-95° C. In other words, it is undesirable for the GST alloy to besusceptible to phase change once programmed, where the circuit isoperating at temperatures normally designed for. FIG. 4 is a graphillustrating the resistivity of the various states (amorphous,amorphous-rocksalt, hex crystalline) of Ge₂Sb₂Te₅, as a function ofnitrogen doping. As GeSb₄ also has a more elevated crystallizationtemperature than undoped Ge₂Sb₂Te₅, this PCM material need not be doped.

Referring generally now to FIGS. 5 through 10, several possibleembodiments of a programmable via structure (incorporating a PCM) areillustrated. As indicated above, the vias therein may have the standardcross section a_(via)×a_(via) at a particular node (e.g., a_(via)=0.2μm) or lower, and may be comprised wholly or partly of phase changematerial (PCM). A heater used to implement the SET and RESET operationsincludes a thin layer (e.g., thickness on the order of about t_(h)=20nm) of a refractory material such as TaSiN, which has a relatively highresistivity (on the order of about ρ=400 μΩcm, depending oncomposition), and a relatively low thermal conductivity (on the order ofabout 0.01-0.02 J/(K·cm·sec)). Heating is accomplished by passing apulse of current through the heater in the horizontal plane. DuringRESET (quench from melt), a thin region of the PCM adjacent to theheater surface is melted and transformed to the amorphous phase. Thisthin region corresponds to the transformable part of the via material.

As particularly shown in FIGS. 5(a) and 5(b), a first embodiment of aprogrammable via structure 500 includes a heater 502 deposited as a film(e.g., TaSiN) on an insulator material (such as SiO₂ for example). Theheater material preferably has a thermal conductivity on the order ofabout 0.01-0.02 J/(K·cm·sec) or lower, and forms a planar interface withthe bottom of a PCM via 504. In this geometry, the transformable part506 of the via 504 material forms a very thin layer (e.g., havingthickness on the order of about t_(transf)=4 nm, or larger) adjacent tothe heater surface. When the via 504 is in the “off” state, theresistance of the thin layer 506 constitutes the “off” resistance of thevia. When the via 504 is in the “on” state, the whole length of the via504 plus a part of the heater 502 forms the “on” resistance. Theseresistances are key to the via function, and are estimated below.

In the first embodiment of FIGS. 5(a) and 5(b), the heater power supplycurrent path is through metal contacts 508 disposed on opposite sides ofthe heater 502 with respect to the PCM interface. Such a design permitsa TaSiN lead length (external to the PCM material) of one half the viawidth. As also shown in the embodiment of FIGS. 5(a) and 5(b), theprogrammable via structure provides a programmable link between an inputconnection (IP) located at an upper metal level (M2) and an outputconnection (OP) located at a lower metal level (M0), thus enabling aprogrammable configuration between distinct semiconductor layers in a 3Dstructure. In this instance, the heater contacts 508 are disposed at anintermediate metal level (M1) between M2 and M0. A conventional via 510(e.g., filled with tungsten) is used to connect M1 to M0.

In most cases (except for a later embodiment presented hereinafter; FIG.9, and a variant of FIG. 10) the heater circuit is assumed to beisolated and floating when the heater is not operative. Its effect onthe via 504 during logic operation is thus a small parasiticcapacitance. As illustrated in a later embodiment, if it becomesdesirable to electrically insulate the heater 502 from the via 504, avery thin intervening oxide layer may be included therebetween (e.g.,having a thickness on the order of about 5 nm).

FIG. 6 illustrates a second embodiment of a programmable via structure600. Similar to the embodiment of FIG. 5, the via structure 600 includesa heater 602 forming a planar interface with the bottom of a PCM via604. In this embodiment, both the input connection (IP) the outputconnection (OP) are located at the same metal level (M2), enablingprogrammable configuration within a single semiconductor layer of thestructure. When the transformable portion 606 of the PCM via 604 is inthe “on” state, the connection path runs from IP, down through PCM via604 and the heater 602, and back up through a conventional via 608 toOP.

FIG. 7(a) illustrates a third embodiment of a programmable via structure700. As is shown, the heater 702 is sandwiched between upper and lowersections of the PCM via 704. Because of the very low thermalconductivity of GST, this embodiment utilizes less switching power withrespect to the embodiment of FIG. 6. Here, the “off” resistance isdefined by the two thin transformable layers 706 in series (in theamorphous state), while the “on” resistance is that of the entire 704via in its crystalline phase, including a negligible contribution fromthe heater 702, due to its geometry. Similar to the embodiment of FIG.5, the connection path (when the via 704 is programmed “on”) runs fromthe input connection (IP) located on upper metal level M2 down to theoutput connection (OP) located on lower metal level M0. The heatercurrent path runs through intermediate metal level M1. In FIG. 7(b), anexample of how the programmable structure of FIG. 7(a) is located withrespect to a metal interconnect 708 within a 3DI structure 710 isillustrated.

FIG. 8 illustrates a fourth embodiment of a programmable via structure800, having characteristics of the embodiments of FIGS. 6 and 7. Similarto FIG. 6, the input and output connections lie within the same metallevel. However, similar to FIG. 7, the via 804 connected to the outputcontact OP is also a PCM via. It will be noted that (as opposed to theembodiment of FIG. 6), the second heater contact at M1 does not liedirectly beneath the PCM via connected to OP. This prevents the contactmetal at M1 from drawing excessive heat from the portion of the heater802 in contact with the PCM via 804.

FIGS. 9(a) and 9(b) illustrate a fifth embodiment of a programmable viastructure 900, which also enables programmable configuration within asingle semiconductor layer in a 3D structure. In this embodiment,however, the program current path flows longitudinally in thetransformable PCM layer 906 between adjacent crystalline portions 904.The heater 902 (unlike the previous embodiments) is not actually a partof the programmed path between IP and OP. Thus, a thin insulating layer908 (e.g., an oxide on order of about 2-5 nm in thickness) is disposedbetween the heater 902 and the PCM for electrical isolation, but is notthick enough to significantly affect thermal operation. As a result, theembodiment of FIG. 9 eliminates the need for electrical isolation of theheater circuit during logic operation. Moreover, as the electricalresistance of the link is relatively high (given the direction ofcurrent through PCM material), this configuration of the via structure900 is well-suited for a PCM material with a low resistivity, such asbinary Ge_(x)Sb_(1-x), (recalling from Table I that the resistivities ρfor GeSb₄ are: crystalline phase, ρ=5×10⁻⁴ Ω·cm, amorphous phase, ρ=1Ω·cm).

The insulating layer 910 on top of the transformable section of PCM 906and between the input and output contacts is selected so as to have alow thermal conductivity (e.g., 0.002-0.007 J/(K·cm·sec)) forsatisfactory operation. One suitable material in this regard is NBLOK(nitrogen doped silicon carbide).

FIGS. 10(a) and 10(b) illustrates a fifth embodiment of a programmablevia structure 1000. Instead of having separate layers of transformablePCM material on opposite sides of the heater 1002, the transformableportion 1006 of the PCM via 1004 is instead passed through an openingformed in the heater film is illustrated, as perhaps best illustrated inFIG. 10(b). In this embodiment, the volume of transformable PCM 1006 issignificantly larger than in the devices with a planar heater interface,requiring longer thermal cycle times. The “off” resistance is alsocomparatively larger, due to the thicker region of amorphous PCM, whilethe “on” resistance is again that of the entire via 1004 in crystallinephase. Although not specifically shown in FIGS. 10(a) and 10(b), a thininsulating layer could be formed around the perimeter of the openingmade in the heater 1002 so as to electrically isolate the heater circuitfrom the program circuit.

For each of the above described embodiments, using both the geometry ofthe designs and the material properties shown in Table I, the “on” and“off” resistances of the embodiments may be estimated approximately, asshown in Table II below: TABLE II ON and OFF Resistances for differentDesign Configurations Figure # x, y, z in Ge_(x)Sb_(y)Te_(z) R_(on) (KΩ)R_(off) (MΩ) 5 2, 2, 5* 2.2 8 6 2, 2, 5* 2.2 8 7 2, 2, 5* 2.0 16 8 2, 2,5* 2.4 16 9 1, 4, 0  1.2 24 10 2, 2, 5* 2.0 >20*12% N-doping

The above approximations further take into account a via squarecross-ion section with dimension a_(via)=0.2 μm, a total via heighth_(via)=0.2 μm, a thickness of transformable PCM layer, t_(transf)=4.0nm or larger, and a spacing between vias d_(via)=0.2 μm.

The “on” and “off” resistance requirements are appreciated uponconsideration of a logic configuration such as shown in FIG. 11. In thisexample, the PCM elements 1102 in lines A and B are in the amorphous,high resistance configuration, while the PCM element 1102 in line C isin the crystalline, low resistance state. The inverter 1104 in line Cdrives the output inverter 1106 at line D through the “on” PCM link,which must have a low enough resistance to support a correct logic stateand timing. The PCM “on” link resistances in Table I are on the order ofabout 1 KΩ, as is required to satisfy this condition in CMOS logic.However, in a performance-related path, where the PCM via “on”resistance is such as to degrade performance, a buffer (not shown) maybe inserted.

In evaluating the “off” link resistance, it is assumed that inverteroutputs A and B are logically low, and that inverter output C is high.In this case, inverter 1104 is (through line D) driving two “off” PCMvias in parallel. This should be a light load in order to maintain CMOSfunctionality. It is also desirable for this path to draw as small aparasitic current as possible. The relatively high “off” resistancesindicated in Table I should ensure these conditions adequately. Thus,the programmable via designs along with the chosen materials should beembeddable in CMOS logic without requiring additional latches. Timingstudies may be performed in order to take into account the parasiticcapacitance of the heater circuits, except for the embodiment of FIG. 9,where the capacitance of the thin oxide layer is relevant.

Processing Operations

Referring once again to the programmable via structures of FIGS. 5through 10, exemplary processing operations for forming the same are nowdiscussed. Generally, each begins with a substrate material, such assilicon. A thermally and electrically insulating layer such as SiO₂, forexample, (about 200 nm in thickness) is then deposited. The thermalconductivity of the insulating layer is preferably in the range of about0.01-0.02 J/(K·cm·sec) or less, and the material should betemperature-stable in the device operating range.

In the embodiment of FIG. 5, the bottom contact layer M0 (e.g., W or Cu)is deposited on top of a thermally and electrically insulating layer(e.g., SiO₂). After patterning the M0 layer, an oxide is deposited. TheSiO₂ is patterned to align via V1 (e.g., about 0.2×0.2 μm) with the M1level, which again represents the metallization level for the heater.The contact vias at M1 may be filled with a suitable metal such atungsten, for example. Following a suitable planarizing step, arefractory metal (H1) layer (e.g., about 20 nm in thickness) isdeposited. This refractory metal layer (e.g., TaSiN, NiCr, or dopedCrO_(x)) is then patterned as an external heater. Another planarization(CMP) step may be utilized to insure a “flat” interface between thesubsequently formed PCM and the heater layer H1. The heater formation isfollowed by a deposition of SiO₂ which is patterned to make a via (e.g.,about 0.2×0.2 μm) to be filled with PCM (including suitable adhesion andcapping layers at the opposite ends of the PCM plug, such as Ti/TiN).The top metallization layer M2 is then deposited and patterned to makecontacts to the filled vias. In this structure, the V1 contact vias areconfigured to connect to the bottom logic layer in the 3DI scheme.

In the embodiment of FIG. 6, the metallization level M1 is depositeddirectly on top of SiO₂ (without first building the M0 and V1 levels).This is followed by formation of the heater H1 level, where theinterface for the next step should be planar. The oxide is thendeposited and patterned with vias to be filled with PCM (with cappinglayers), and thereafter the operations are repeated to createconventional metallic vias, with both types of vias contacting the M2level. The embodiments in FIGS. 5 and 6 are configured to minimize thelength of the heater leads so as to optimize power requirements. It willbe noted that the specific details of the heater driving circuits areomitted for purposes of simplicity.

In the embodiment of FIG. 7, the process flow is substantially the sameas for FIG. 5. However, one difference is that the V1 via of FIG. 7 isfilled with PCM, including the appropriate capping layers. PCM via V2,which is built after the planarization step following the deposition ofthe H1 heater layer, is connected to the V1 via underneath the heater.At this point, a CMP step is used to control the “flatness” of theinterface between PCM and the next layer H1, and thus to controlmorphology of the melt front. This process will result in a symmetricalPCM via structure, interrupted by a heater in the middle thereof. Afterfilling the V2 via with PCM and suitable top capping layers, contact ismade to the M2 contact level.

In the embodiment of FIG. 8, the process flow is substantially the sameas that for FIG. 6, except that both vias atop the heater level arePCM-filled. The processing for the embodiment shown in FIG. 9 issomewhat similar to that of FIG. 8, although a thin insulating layer(O1) may additionally be needed to electrically separate the H1 heaterlayer from the PCM (to ensure a desired ON/OFF ratio). Thedistinguishing feature of the FIG. 9 embodiment is the thin (e.g., about5 nm) PCM layer that forms a fully transformable PCM element bridgingtwo crystalline PCM vias. This thin layer is first blanket deposited andpatterned over a larger area encompassing the two vias in theprogrammable structure. A SiO₂ layer is then deposited and patternedwith vias to be filled with PCM as described previously.

In the embodiment of FIG. 10, there are alternating PCM and heatermaterial levels (PCM/H1/PCM) as is shown in FIG. 7. In this instance,however, following the M0 level formation, the subsequent levelformation is as follows: M1, SiO₂, heater H1, and SiO₂. Then, the viasare formed by pattering and etching the entire SiO₂/H1/SiO₂ stack,followed by filling with the PCM. The top metallization (M2) level(e.g., using tungsten) will follow, as described above. In thisstructure, an insulating lining on the vias may be desirable toelectrically isolate the heater from the PCM as stated above.

Alternatively, tungsten only may be used in the contact vias, and themetal lines are fabricated by damascene processing, using copper. Forexample, the process flow for the embodiment of FIG. 10 would involvefirst oxide deposition, patterning and RIE of the M1 layer, M1 platingand CMP, followed by defining the H1 layer, then another oxidedeposition, deep multi-level RIE, PCM fill, and CMP.

Power Requirements

In the embodiments of FIGS. 5 through 9, the primary heat propagationdirection is normal to the film plane along the direction z. Forillustration purposes, diffusive heat propagation is first considered asa purely one-dimensional process in the z-direction. Three-dimensionalsimulations presented in a later section give a more accurate measure ofthe power requirements. For a semi-infinite medium of heat conductivityK and specific heat C per unit volume being heated at its surfacelocated at z=0, starting at time t=0, the equation obeyed by temperatureT(z,t) is the diffusion equation:${\frac{\partial T}{\partial t} = {D\frac{\partial^{2}T}{\partial z^{2}}}},$

where the diffusion constant is $D = {\frac{K}{C}.}$

The solution for constant power W applied up to a switch-off time t₀ isgiven by:${{T( {z,t} )} = {T_{a} + {T_{0}{\sqrt{\frac{t}{t_{0}}}\lbrack {{\mathbb{e}}^{- \varsigma^{2}} - {\varsigma\sqrt{\pi}( {1 - {{erf}(\varsigma)}} )}} \rbrack}}}},$

where ζ=z/√{square root over (4Dt)}, T_(a) is ambient temperature, andT₀ is the temperature rise at switch-off. The temperature evolution atthe surface z=0 is given by:${{T( {0,t} )} = {T_{a} + {T_{0}\sqrt{\frac{t}{t_{0}}}}}},$

and rises as the square root of time. The power is given by:${W = {{AT}_{0}\sqrt{\frac{\pi\quad{KC}}{4t_{0}}}}},$

where A is heater surface area in the xy-plane. Thermal properties ofsome of the key materials are given in Table I above.

Application of this formula to an area of 0.2×0.2 μm² (a_(via)=0.2 μm),T₀=700 C, and t₀=2.0 ns, including the Table I parameters, gives (forheater powers into a semi-infinite medium): W_(G)=0.35 mW for GST,W_(O)=1.1 mW for SiO₂ (the relative magnitudes of W_(G) and W_(O) trackthe KC product, which is much smaller for GST than for SiO₂).

In considering the design of the FIGS. 5 and 6 embodiments, it isassumed for purposes of simplicity that the heater relatively rapidlyequilibrates with the medium. For example, the internal heater heatdiffusion time ${\tau_{h} = \frac{t_{h}^{2}C_{h}}{4K_{h}}},$

with τ_(h)=20 nm, and assuming C_(h)≈2 JK⁻¹cm⁻³, gives τ_(h)=0.1 ns,which is very short compared with other times of interest. However, thiswill not necessarily be the case in all situations; 3D simulationsconfirm this fast equilibrium in a more realistic geometry. Estimatedheat loss in the TaSiN 0.1 μm leads, with a maximum temperature drop of700° C. along the length, would be about 60 μW per lead. However, inpractice, the leads also heat up to nearly T₀, making the heat loss fromthe leads relatively low compared with the heater power. Hence, anapproximate analysis may be made based on treating the heater as a sheetsource of power with uniform power per unit area.

Proceeding on this assumption, the heater powers emitted from each sideof the heater strip are summed to obtain the total heater power. In thestructure of FIGS. 5 and 6, the effective heater strip length is takenas 2.0a_(via). The values shown below in Table IIIa are then obtainedfor the required heater power for the designs of the embodiments inFIGS. 5 and 6.

In the embodiment of FIG. 7, the heat is dissipated partly into oxide onboth sides, and partly into GST on both sides. The heater length isagain taken as 2a_(via), giving the result indicated in Table IIIa. Amore accurate result is given in the section on 3D simulations, wherethis case is considered. The power required during the melt phase is 1.9mW for a heater slab measuring 0.2×0.2×0.01875 cubic microns.

In the embodiment of FIG. 8, the estimate is similar to that for FIGS. 5and 6, except that there are two PCM vias and thus the heater length istaken as 4a_(via), with a corresponding increase in heat lost to oxide.In FIG. 9, the estimate is similar to FIGS. 5 and 6. An estimate for theembodiment of FIG. 10 is given in a following section, where the 3Dsimulations of this case are presented; the result is 2.8 mW during themelt phase for a heater slab measuring 0.2×0.2×0.01875 cubic microns.TABLE IIIa Estimated Power requirements for 0.2 μm PCM Vias Figure # W(mW) R_(h) (KΩ) I(mA) V (V) 5, 6 0.35 + 3 × 1.1 = 3.65 0.4 3.1 1.2 7 2 ×0.35 + 2 × 1.1 = 2.9 0.4 2.7 1.1 8 2 × 0.35 + 6 × 1.1 = 7.3 0.8 3.0 2.49 0.35 + 3 × 1.1 = 3.65 0.4 3.1 1.2

By way of comparison, the results shown in Table IIIb below are thosecorresponding to a via of width 0.1 μm and to a TaSiN heater compositionwith a resistivity about 10 times than indicated in Table I, with a PCMresistivity of about 0.25 times that in Table I to maintain the “on” and“off” impedances in Table II. Alternatively, retaining the Table I PCMmaterial, the PCM portion of the via may be reduced in height to about50 nm, and filling the remaining portion with conventional conductormaterial (e.g., tungsten), thus keeping the same “on” with a higher“off” resistance. These modified resistivity values lie within the rangeachievable by composition control. TABLE IIIb Estimated Powerrequirements for 0.1 μm PCM Vias Figure # W (mW) R_(h) (KΩ) I (mA) V (V)5, 6 0.91 4.0 0.48 1.9 7 0.73 4.0 0.43 1.7 8 1.82 8.0 0.48 3.8 9 0.914.0 0.48 1.9

The heater voltage may, in some cases, require the option of using theavailable I/O line power supplies (e.g., 2-3 V). Current is also asignificant consideration because it controls the width of the drivingFET, which is typically larger than the via itself. Here, the smallervia dimensions (Table IIIb), combined with a higher resistivity heatermaterial, is advantageous in this respect to the larger vias used inTable IIIa.

In considering scaling at constant programming power supply voltage andat fixed technology, the power needed to drive a via of diameter ascales as a², where for the current I (C=constant):I=Ca ².

The drive output transistor width w is proportional to the current(B=constant):w=BI,hencew=BCa ².

The transistor width is typically the controlling dimension of thedevice, w>>a, hence the total device dimension scales as a². There isthus a strong motivation, based on minimizing total programmable viadevice area, to make the via as small as possible, since devicedimension goes as its square. Individual designs will also need to beoptimized to the precise line voltage, so as to minimize current andhence device dimension.

1D Numerical Simulation of RESET and SET Processes

For an analysis of the programming of the PCM vias, certain additionalfactors that are taken into account (in addition to heat diffusion)include latent heat of melting of the PCM, as well as the kinetics ofthe propagating front corresponding to the melt interface. This is donethrough a numerical approach for heat and melt front propagation withinthe GST layer. First a one-dimensional model of a basic melt front isdescribed because of its mathematical simplicity. In the followingsubsection, three-dimensional simulations of two designs (FIGS. 7 and10) are described.Including latent heat, conservation of energy modifies the diffusionequation for temperature T(z,t) in the GST (subscripts G refer to GST)to:${{C_{G}\frac{\mathbb{d}T}{\mathbb{d}t}} = {{K_{G}\frac{\mathbb{d}^{2}T}{\mathbb{d}x^{2}}} - {L_{G}\frac{\mathbb{d}f_{G}}{\mathbb{d}t}}}},$

where f_(G)(z,t) is the fraction of melt in the material, and L_(G) isthe latent heat per unit volume.

The equation for the melt fraction dynamics is based on modifiedWilson-Frenkel kinetics, with friction described by the Vogel-Fulcherform appropriate for “fragile glasses,” and is given as:${\frac{\mathbb{d}f_{G}}{\mathbb{d}t} = {{- V_{m}^{0}}\frac{\partial f_{G}}{\partial z}}},$

where the melt front velocity V(T) is given by${{V(T)} = {V_{0}{{\mathbb{e}}^{\frac{- E_{a}}{k_{B}{({T - T_{g}})}}}\lbrack {{\mathbb{e}}^{\frac{\Delta\quad{S_{m}{({T_{m} - T})}}}{k_{B}T}} - 1} \rbrack}}},$

in which V₀ is a characteristic velocity, E_(a) is the activation energyfor the transition from the amorphous to the crystalline phase, ΔS_(m)is the melt entropy, T_(m) is the melt temperature, T_(g) is a “glass”temperature, and temperatures are measured from absolute zero. Onlypropagation of the melt front x_(m), not homogeneous nucleation, istaken into account, due to the relatively long nucleation time (μs evenin thick films of some materials, though it may be faster in others)anticipated in nanometer-thickness films relative to the ns time scalesof interest in RESET (a fast SET process is also assumed here, althoughtime scales may be more extended in optimal engineering operation). Inpractice, numerical requirements dictate certain modifications to thebasic procedure.

It will be noted that low temperature crystallization rates obeyArrhenius kinetics: A exp(−E^(low) _(a)/kT), where E^(low) _(a) is alow-temperature activation energy of order 2-3 eV. This analysis is anappropriate one for considering archival storage lifetime.

The boundary condition at the PCM surface for RESET is obtained from theapproximate analysis of the previous subsection, the temperature profilebeing extended beyond the turn-off-time t₀ using the shift theorem, togive a profile qualitatively like that in FIG. 4:${T( {0,t} )} = {T_{a} + {T_{0}{{\sqrt{\frac{1}{t_{0}}}\lbrack {t^{1/2} - {{\Theta( {t - t_{0}} )}( {t - t_{0}} )^{1/2}}} \rbrack}.}}}$

In this equation, t₀=t_(quench) ^(off) and T₀=T_(quench) ^(max)−T_(a) inthe notation of Table IV, below.

The boundary condition at the PCM surface for SET is:${T( {0,t} )} = {T_{a} + {{T_{0}\lbrack {{\sqrt{\frac{1}{t_{0}}}t^{1/2}{\Theta( {t_{0} - t} )}} + {\Theta( {t - t_{0}} )}} \rbrack}.}}$

In this equation, t₀=t_(anneal) ^(hold) and T₀=T_(anneal) ^(hold)−T_(a)in the notation of Table IV. The parameters in Table IV are partly basedon an experimental study of laser-annealed spot crystallization kineticsin rotating PCM-coated disks. The maximum recrystallization frontvelocity is 2.2 m/s.

The results of the simulation with the foregoing parameters are shown inFIG. 12, which illustrates a plot of the melt front location vs. time inthe quench and anneal steps. The anneal temperature is set at themaximum recrystallization velocity, thus the recrystallization time isrelatively short. TABLE IV Main Parameters in 1D Simulation Symbol valueExplanation V₀ 900 ms⁻¹ Velocity prefactor L_(PCM) 50 nm Thickness ofPCM film T_(m) 560° C. Melt temp. T_(quench) ^(max) 868° C. Max.transient quench temp. t_(quench) ^(off) 2.0 ns Current turn-off time inquench T_(anneal) ^(hold) 480° C. Hold temp. in anneal t_(anneal)^(hold) 0.58 ns Time for commence of hold in anneal L 120 Jcm⁻³ Latentheat of melting E_(a) 15000 J/mole Activation energy T_(g) 85° C. Glasstemperature T_(a) 27° C. Ambient temperature

The latent heat is relatively low, and thus for approximation purposes,it may be neglected completely (though simulations have also beensuccessfully implemented in which significant latent heat values havebeen included). FIG. 13 illustrates graphical results of a study (forzero latent heat) of the engineering envelope for the amorphizationprocess. This is significant, since both heater power and turn-off timeneed to be adjusted to the PCM material characteristics. The Table IVparameters are used, except that three velocity prefactors, 500, 900,and 1300 ms⁻¹ were used (and parametrized by the maximumrecrystallization front velocities), and the heater power and turn-offtime were varied continuously. Amorphization is deemed possible wherethe long-time amorphous layer thickness exceeded 2.5 nm. Amorphization,with increasingly thick layers, occurs above the parabola-like curves inFIG. 13. Lines of constant heater power are defined by the dashed lines.As is illustrated, faster velocities require higher heater powers,raising the PCM to a higher temperature, along with shorter times. For agiven velocity, there is typically a minimum power and a minimumtemperature below which amorphization does not occur. A narrow range ofturn-off times is appropriate for a given velocity and maximumtemperature T_(max).

3D Simulation of PCM Melt, Quench, and Anneal

Three-dimensional simulations of PCM encased in oxide with a metalheater were run to determine the geometry and time scale for the melt,quench, and anneal processes. These simulations matched the results ofthe 1D simulations for the same 1D geometry. With the full 3Dconfiguration of the heater and PCM material, the simulations confirmthat the design performs as intended. The 3D simulations also provide abetter power estimate for the operation of the via, as they involve nosimplifying assumptions about the geometry, the boundary conditions, or3D heat diffusion.

The physical constants introduced in the previous section were used,along with 3D versions of the equations, which are, in dimensionlessform:${C_{V}\frac{\partial\phi}{\partial t}} = {{\nabla{\bullet( {K{\nabla\phi}} )}} - {L \cdot \frac{\partial f_{G}}{\partial t}} + {H( {\overset{arrow}{x},t} )}}$$\frac{\partial f_{G}}{\partial t} = {{- V}\quad\bullet{{\nabla f_{G}}.}}$

Here, φ=T/T_(m), C_(V), K and L are the dimensionless specific heat,thermal conductivity, and latent heat of fusion, t and . aredimensionless time and gradient, f_(G) is the melt fraction, and V isthe speed of the melt front:$V = {V_{0}{\mathbb{e}}^{{- 2}{({\delta/r_{0}})}^{2}}{{{\mathbb{e}}^{- \frac{{\overset{\bullet}{E}}_{a}}{\phi - \phi_{g}}}\lbrack {{\mathbb{e}}^{- {{\overset{\bullet}{S}}_{m}{({\frac{1}{\phi} - 1})}}} - 1} \rbrack}.}}$

The temperature is controlled by the time- and position-dependent heatinput, H. The rate of change of f_(G) at any point depends on thedistance δ between that point and the nearest melt front surface. Thewidth of the melt front is taken to be r₀; φ_(G)=T_(G)/T_(m) is thenormalized glass transition temperature. Dimensionless constants V₀,

and

were determined from the physical constants given in the previoussections.

The calculation is straightforward using finite differences for thederivatives with a rectilinear grid of cells; φ and f_(G) arecell-centered quantities. The melt front is defined by the centralpoints of all the cell walls that straddle cell volumes where f_(G)<0.5and f_(G)>0.5. The nearest distance δ between a cell position and themelt front is determined by first finding the three nearest points onthe melt front. These three points define a plane and the perpendiculardistance between the cell position and the plane is determined by vectortrigonometry.

FIG. 14 illustrates a snapshot from a simulation with a solid slab ofheating material in the separating plane between two PCM+oxidecomposites (embodiment of FIG. 7). The figure uses a 3D volume renderedprojection with grayscale proportional to temperature (dark is hot). Thegrid points that define the melt front are shown as tiny dots. The timestep is 60 ns after the heater is turned on, when the melt front isstill moving up and down on either side of the heater slab.

FIG. 15 illustrates a snapshot at 60 ns into the melting phase ofanother model with a ring of heating material and an oxide shellsurrounding a continuous PCM volume (embodiment of FIG. 10). The resultsfor the ring heater are similar to those for the slab heater, withslight differences in the shape of the melt front.

For both the slab and ring heater models, the PCM is on the inside of anoxide shell. The PCM outer dimensions are 100×100×131.25 nm³, while theouter dimensions of the oxide shell are 200×200×231.25 nm³. Smallersamples were also simulated; they show the same behavior but haveshorter timescales for all the phase changes.

The temperature structure inside the model is much smoother than themelt structure, which has sharp fronts separating the different phases.To resolve f_(G) without doing unnecessary calculations for φ, thesimulation uses a fine grid for f_(G) and a coarse grid for φ. Fortemperature, the simulations in the ring case (FIG. 15) use a gridmeasuring 32×32×37 cells with PCM in the central 16×16×21 cells. Theheater measures 32×32×3 cells with the central 16×16×3 cut out andfilled with PCM connected to the rest of the PCM. In the slab case (FIG.14), the heater bifurcates the PCM by occupying the horizontal midplanein 32×32×3 cells. In all cases, the PCM has a grid for melt fraction,f_(G), which is 4 times finer than the temperature grid.

The heating function H is taken to be a constant for three intervals oftime. During the melting phase, H is large enough to make the peaktemperature in the heating zone increase to about φ=1.5. In the quenchphase, H=0, so the material returns to room temperature. In the annealphase, H comes back on for 200 ns but with a value slightly smaller thanin the melt phase, now making the peak φ equilibrate to around 0.98.

The simulations indicate that the PCM in our configurations developmelted holes in the center during the SET phase, thereby changing theelectrical conductivity from top to bottom as required by the device.The PCM is quenched when the heating rate is dropped suddenly, and itanneals when the temperature is raised to just below the meltingtemperature.

The power required to melt the PCM in the ring simulation was 2.8 mW fora heater measuring 0.2×0.2×0.01875 cubic microns; the power for the slabsimulation was slightly less, 1.9 mW, for the same dimensions. The slabrequired less power than the ring because the slab has a greater area incontact with the PCM.

Finally, the considerations for selection of an appropriate PCM aresummarized below. As was alluded to previously, suitable PCM materialsinclude not only Ge, Sb, and Te, but also other elements such as Ag, In,Sn, for example, as well as dopants such as N. Generally speaking,desirable PCM properties include archival stability at about 85°-95° C.,which tends to improve with Ge content. In addition, crystallizationfront speed may be on the order of about V₀<45 m/s (with maximumrecrystallization velocity on the order of about <1.1 m/s acceptable),which correlates with low Sb content. The nucleation rate of the PCMshould be low enough to avoid nucleation during quench (i.e., at hightemperature), although the specific mechanism of recrystallization is ofno particular concern for application (in contrast to a compact diskread/write (CDRW) application).

As indicated above, the “on”/“off” ratio is preferably high, while the“on” resistance (depending upon the particular structural embodiment)preferably utilizes a high conductance material such as GeSb₄ (e.g.,FIG. 9). For other designs, however, the “off” resistance requirementsdictates the use of a lower conductance material.

While the invention has been described with reference to a preferredembodiment or embodiments, it will be understood by those skilled in theart that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substitutedfor elements thereof without departing from the scope of the invention.In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particularsituation or material to the teachings of the invention withoutdeparting from the essential scope thereof. Therefore, it is intendedthat the invention not be limited to the particular embodiment disclosedas the best mode contemplated for carrying out this invention, but thatthe invention will include all embodiments falling within the scope ofthe appended claims.

1. A programmable link structure for use in three dimensionalintegration (3DI) semiconductor devices, comprising: a via filled atleast in part with a phase change material (PCM); and a heating deviceproximate said PCM, said heating device configured to switch theconductivity of a transformable portion of said PCM between a lowerresistance crystalline state and a higher resistance amorphous state;said via thereby defining a programmable link between an inputconnection located at one end thereof and an output connection locatedat another end thereof.
 2. The programmable link structure of claim 1,wherein said PCM further comprises an alloy of: Ge_(x)Sb_(y)Te_(z)N_(w).3. The programmable link structure of claim 1, wherein said heatingdevice further comprises a TaSiN layer.
 4. The programmable linkstructure of claim 1, wherein said heating device is configured totransform said transformable portion of said PCM material from saidcrystalline state to said amorphous state by raising the temperature ofsaid PCM above the melting point thereof, followed by a quench to retainthe arrangement of atoms in said PCM in said amorphous state.
 5. Theprogrammable link structure of claim 4, wherein said heating device isconfigured to transform said transformable portion of said PCM materialfrom said amorphous state to said crystalline state by annealing saidPCM at a temperature lower than said melting point so as to cause saidatoms to crystallize.
 6. The programmable link structure of claim 1,wherein: said input connection of said programmable link is formed on afirst metal level; input and output terminals for said heating deviceare located on a second metal level; and said output connection of saidprogrammable link is formed on a third metal level.
 7. The programmablelink structure of claim 1, wherein said input and output connections ofsaid programmable link are formed on the same metal level with respectto one another, and wherein input and output terminals for said heatingdevice are located on a different metal level with respect to said inputand output connections of said programmable link.
 8. The programmablelink structure of claim 1, wherein said heating device is electricallyisolated from a programmed current path between said input and outputconnections of said programmable link.
 9. The programmable linkstructure of claim 1, wherein said heating device comprises a portion ofa programmed current path between said input and output connections ofsaid programmable link when said PCM is in said crystalline state. 10.The programmable link structure of claim 6, wherein: said via filled atleast in part with said PCM is disposed between said input connection ofsaid programmable link and a top side of said heating device; andanother via is disposed between a bottom surface of said heating deviceand said output connection of said programmable link.
 11. Theprogrammable link structure of claim 10, wherein said another via isdisposed directly beneath one of an input and an output terminal forsaid heating device, said another via filled with a metal material. 12.The programmable link structure of claim 10, wherein said another via isdisposed directly beneath said via filled at least in part with saidPCM, and said another via is also filled at least in part with said PCM.13. The programmable link structure of claim 6, wherein: said via filledat least in part with said PCM is disposed between said input connectionof said programmable link and said output connection of saidprogrammable link; and said via filled at least in part with said PCMpasses through said heating device.
 14. The programmable link structureof claim 7, wherein: said via filled at least in part with said PCM isdisposed between said input connection of said programmable link and atop side of said heating device; and another via is disposed betweensaid top surface of said heating device and said output connection ofsaid programmable link; said another via directly aligned above one ofan input and an output terminal for said heating device, said anothervia filled with a metal material.
 15. The programmable link structure ofclaim 7, wherein: said via filled at least in part with said PCM isdisposed between said input connection of said programmable link and atop side of said heating device; and another via is disposed betweensaid top surface of said heating device and said output connection ofsaid programmable link said another also filled at least in part withsaid PCM.
 16. The programmable link structure of claim 7, furthercomprising a thin, electrically isolating layer disposed between saidheating device and said transformable portion of said PCM.
 17. Theprogrammable link structure of claim 16, a programmed current pathbetween said input and output connections of said programmable linkflows longitudinally through said transformable portion of said PCM whensaid transformable portion of said PCM is in said crystalline state. 18.A method for programming a programmable link structure of a threedimensional integration (3DI) semiconductor devices, comprising: passinga current through a heating device, said heating device proximate a viafilled at least in part with a phase change material (PCM), said viathereby defining a programmable link between an input connection locatedat one end thereof and an output connection located at another endthereof; wherein said heating device is configured to switch theconductivity of a transformable portion of said PCM between a lowerresistance crystalline state and a higher resistance amorphous state.19. The method of claim 18, further comprising implementing a resetoperation to electrically open said programmable link by selecting saidcurrent through said heating device so as to transform saidtransformable portion of said PCM material from said crystalline stateto said amorphous state by raising the temperature of said PCM above themelting point thereof, followed by a quench to retain the arrangement ofatoms in said PCM in said amorphous state.
 20. The method of claim 19,further comprising implementing a set operation to electrically closesaid programmable link by selecting said current through said heatingdevice so as to transform said transformable portion of said PCMmaterial from said amorphous state to said crystalline state byannealing said PCM at a temperature lower than said melting point so asto cause said atoms to crystallize.